ARTICLE
Individual Variation in SLA
To
complete our work about lesson Second
Language Acquisition
Lecturer : Mohamad Nor Shodiq, M.Pd
Created By :
Ana Lailatul Hilmiah
St.
Shofia Munawaroh
Mega Apriliyana
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
DARUSSALAM ISLAMIC INSTITUTION
BLOKAGUNG TEGALSARI BANYUWANGI
2019
FOREWORD
First
of all, thanks to Allah SWT because of the help of Allah, writer finished
writing the paper entitled Lenghtening of Phonetic and Phonology right in the
calculated time.
The purpose
in writing this paper is to fulfill the assignment that given by Mr.Mohamad
Nor Shodiq, M.Pd as lecturer in Second
Language Acquisition.
In arranging
this paper, the writer trully get lots challenges and obstructions but with
help of many indiviuals, those obstructions could passed. Writer also realized
there are still many mistakes in process of writing this paper.
Because of
that, the writer says thank you to all individuals who helps in the process of
writing this paper. hopefully allah replies all helps and bless you all.the
writer realized tha this paper still imperfect in arrangment and the
content. then the writer hope the
criticism from the readers can help the writer in perfecting the next
paper.last but not the least Hopefully, this paper can helps the readers to
gain more knowledge about Individual Variation in Second Language Acquisition.
Blokagung,
06 of August 2019
Writers
Table of Contens
Cover...................................................................................................................... i
Forward................................................................................................................. ii
Table
of Contents................................................................................................. iii
CHAPTER
I INTRODUCTION
A. Introduction................................................................................................... 1
B. Problem Identification.................................................................................. 1
C. Purpose.......................................................................................................... 1
D. Benefit........................................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER II CONTENTS
A. What is Individual Variation?....................................................................... 2
B. What Some Factors of
Individual Variation in SLA.................................... 2
CHAPTER
III CLOSING
A. Conclusion................................................................................................... 10
B. Tips............................................................................................................... 10
BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................ 11
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Introduction
Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the
capacity to perceive, produce and use words to understand and communicate.
This capacity involves the picking up of diverse capacities including syntax,
phonetics, and an extensive vocabulary. This language might be vocal as with
speech or manual as in sign. Language acquisition usually refers to first
language acquisition, which studies infants' acquisition of their native
language, rather than second language acquisition that deals with acquisition
(in both children and adults) of additional languages.
Before children put together their first two-word
sentences, at very approximately 18 months of age, their language acquisition
appears, in terms of what strikes the investigator’s ear, to consist mainly in
amassing a stock of words. The period from the child’s first ‘word’, at very
approximately 9 months, to the first sentences is then a conveniently delimited
one for an essay on early vocabulary.
B. Problem Identification
1. What is individual variation
in SLA?
2. What are some factors of
individual variation in SLA?
C. Purpose
1. Explain about What is
individual variation in SLA.
2. Explain about What
are some factors of individual variation in SLA.
D. Benefit
We can understanding about individual variation in SLA lesson
exactly about Second Language Acquisition.
CHAPTER II
CONTENTS
A. Definition
Of Individual Variation in SLA
Individual variation in
second-language acquisition is the study of why some people learn a second
language better than others. Unlike children who acquire a language, adults
learning a second language rarely reach the same level of competence as native
speakers of that language. Some may stop studying a language before they have
fully internalized it, and others may stop improving despite living in a
foreign country for many years. It also appears that children are more likely
than adults to reach native-like competence in a second language. There have
been many studies that have attempted to explain these phenomena.
A flurry of studies in the 1970s, often labelled the "good
language learner studies", sought to identify the distinctive factors
characteristic of successful learners. Although those studies are now widely
regarded as simplistic, they did serve to identify a number of factors
affecting language acquisition. More detailed research on many of these
specific factors continues today. For this reason, individual variation in
second-language acquisition is not generally considered a single area of
research. Rather, it is simply a convenient way to categorize studies about
language aptitude, age and language learning, strategy use, and affective
factors that affect language acquisition.
B. Some
Factors of Individual Variation in SLA
1. Language
aptitude
There are two
definitions that help explain individual difference variables. The first is
predictive, language aptitude is related to a set of cognitive abilities. These
cognitive abilities, allow one to predict how well an individual can learn a
foreign language. These abilities change under limited time and circumstances.
The second definition is interactional. It views language aptitude as
comprehension abilities during second language learning. Aptitude is or can be
subject to change according to an environment. It highlights that no specific
instruction works for all second language learners. Therefore, in order for an
individual to grasp a second language, there must be an adaption. Where the
learner’s abilities can flourish under different learning conditions.
A meta-analysis brought
to light that the importance of aptitude is an overestimate when it comes to
grammatical capability. In specific conditions, language aptitude is a
conscious construct which affects learning results. Language aptitude can be
useful in predicting the beginning stages of second language learning, when it
comes to grammatical competence, but it is not a reliable way to learning
stages.
Tests of language
aptitude have proven extremely effective in predicting which learners will be
successful in learning. However, considerable controversy remains about whether
language aptitude is properly regarded as a unitary concept, an organic
property of the brain, or as a complex of factors including motivation and
short-term memory. Research has generally shown that language aptitude is quite
distinct from general aptitude or intelligence, as measured by various tests,
and is itself fairly consistently measurable by different tests.
Language aptitude
research is often criticized for being irrelevant to the problems of language
learners, who must attempt to learn a language regardless of whether they are
gifted for the task or not. This claim is reinforced by research findings that
aptitude is largely unchangeable. In addition, traditional language aptitude
measures such as the Modern Language Aptitude Test strongly favor
decontextualized knowledge of the sort used in taking tests, rather than the
sort used in conversation. For this reason little research is carried out on
aptitude today. However, operators of selective language programs such as the
United States Defense Language Institute continue to use language aptitude
testing as part of applicant screening.
2. Age
How children acquire
native language (L1) and the relevance of this to foreign language (L2)
learning has long been debated. Although evidence for L2 learning ability
declining with age is controversial, a common notion is that children learn L2s
easily and older learners rarely achieve fluency. This assumption stems from ‘critical
period’ (CP) ideas. A CP was popularised by Eric Lenneberg in 1967 for L1
acquisition, but considerable interest now surrounds age effects on
second-language acquisition (SLA). SLA theories explain learning processes and
suggest causal factors for a possible CP for SLA, mainly attempting to explain
apparent differences in language aptitudes of children and adults by distinct
learning routes, and clarifying them through psychological mechanisms. Research
explores these ideas and hypotheses, but results are varied: some demonstrate
pre-pubescent children acquire language easily, and some that older learners
have the advantage, and yet others focus on existence of a CP for SLA. Recent
studies have recognised that certain aspects of SLA may be affected by age,
though others remain intact.
In terms of specific
ages, Steven Pinker and colleagues conducted a large-scale internet study aimed
at measuring individual’s age, English proficiency, and amount of time spent
practicing English. The findings suggest that the ability to learn a new
language with fluency declines after age 18 and must begin by age 10. There are
three main factors why our ability to acquire a new language declines after the
age of 18. First, significant social changes usually occur at the age of 18.
For example, during this period of time individuals may be heading off to
college or entering the workforce. As a result, less time is dedicated towards
learning a new language. Secondly, an individual’s primary language may impede
the development of a newer language. The grammatical rules of our first
language become more readily available in our minds as we are exposed to our
first language in larger quantities. Lastly, our brains are still developing.
In this case, learning becomes more difficult because the brain is undergoing
significant changes during our late teenage years and early-20s.
3. Strategy
use
The effective use of
strategies has been shown to be critical to successful language learning, so
much so that Canale and Swain (1980) included "strategic competence"
among the four components of communicative competence. Research here has also
shown significant pedagogical effects. This has given rise to
"strategies-based instruction."
Strategies are commonly
divided into learning strategies and communicative strategies, although there
are other ways of categorizing them. Learning strategies are techniques used to
improve learning, such as mnemonics or using a dictionary. Learners (and native
speakers) use communicative strategies to get meaning across even when they
lack access to the correct language: for example, by using pro-forms like
"thing", or non-spoken means such as mime. Communicative strategies
may not have any direct bearing on learning, and some strategies such as avoidance
(not using a form with which one is uncomfortable) may actually hinder
learning.
Children use their own
strategies of cross reference to learn second languages. A longitudinal study
investigated preschool children in an environment where they were exposed to
English as a second language. What was noted was that the children applied the
knowledge from their first language, using patterns to develop their phonology. It
was seen that mere immersion and rehearsal was an effective way for the
children to increase their proficiency of their second language.
Learners from different cultures use strategies in different ways, as a research tradition led by Rebecca Oxford has demonstrated. Related to this are differences in strategy use between male and female learners. Numerous studies have shown that female learners typically use strategies more widely and intensively than males; this may be related to the statistical advantage which female learners enjoy in language learning.
Different learning
strategies have been evaluated and tested to determine the efficacy of their
methods. A strategy that was found effective with English speaking Chinese
learners was the use of a virtual environment. A virtual environment consists
of a digital world in which a person may experience whatever is programmed. A
virtual environment was created using the online virtual world known as Second
Life, where the users could interact with objects, learning the words and
sounds simultaneously. This learning strategy was found to be significantly
more effective than traditional methods of displaying solely an image and
sound. A similar study was done immersing Chinese learners in a virtual
environment and found visualization of the objects increased the learning
proficiency and scores on the proficiency test. The results of the two studies
suggest an advantage when using a virtual environment juxtaposed to traditional
methods among Chinese learners.
4. Affective factors
Affective factors relate to the learner's emotional state and attitude toward the target language. Research on affect in language learning is still strongly influenced by Bloom's taxonomy, which describes the affective levels of receiving, responding, valuing, organization, and self-characterization through one's value system. It has also been informed in recent years by research in neurobiology and neurolinguistics. A research study conducted by Ni (2012), was interested in the role that affective factors played in second-language acquisition (SLA). Additionally, she wanted to know how to apply this knowledge to the context of an educational setting. For example, many instructors want to create lessons for students that facilitate the process of learning a new foreign language. The study Ni (2012) conducted sought to find what important skills students could implement in their SLA pursuits. A 10-item questionnaire was administered to 50 students enrolled in the Foreign Language Department at Heze University in China. The questions collected data on participants’ English fluency, affective factors influence in their SLA, and the preferred method of feedback from their instructor. The main findings displayed how affective factors (e.g. motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety) may advance the acquisition of English as a second language. By using this knowledge, teachers can strengthen their students’ emotional states and create a more welcoming class environment. In doing so, students may be able to acquire a second language more effectively.
5. Affective
filter
Furthermore, researchers believe that language
learners all possess an affective filter which affects language acquisition. If
a student possesses a high filter they are less likely to engage in language
learning because of shyness, concern for grammar or other factors. Students possessing
a lower affective filter will be more likely to engage in learning because they
are less likely to be impeded by other factors. The affective filter is an
important component of second-language learning.
6. Anxiety
Although some continue
to propose that a low level of anxiety may be helpful, studies have almost
unanimously shown that anxiety damages students' prospects for successful
learning. Anxiety is often related to a sense of threat to the learner's
self-concept in the learning situation, for example if a learner fears being
ridiculed for a mistake
7. Personality
Factors
Second-language acquisition is defined as the learning
and adopting of a language that is not the learner's native language. Studies.
have shown that extroverts acquire a second language better than introverts.
One particular study done by Naiman reflected this point. The
subjects were 72 Canadian high school students from grades 8, 10 and 12 who
were studying French as a second language.
Naiman gave them all questionnaires to establish their
psychological profiles, which also included a French listening test and
imitation test. He found that approximately 70% of the students with the higher
grades (B or higher) would consider themselves extroverts.
Extroverts will be willing to try to communicate even if they are
not sure they will succeed. Two scientists, Kinginger and Farrell, conducted
interviews with U.S. students after their study abroad program in France in
2003. They found that many of the students would avoid interaction with the
native speakers at all costs, while others jumped at the opportunity to speak
the language. Those who avoided interaction were typically quiet, reserved
people (i.e., introverts).
Logically, anxiety will cause students not to try and advance
their skills, especially when they feel they are under pressure. Just the lack
of practice will make introverts less likely to fully acquire the second
language.
8. Social Effects
The process of language learning can be very stressful, and the
impact of positive or negative attitudes from the surrounding society can be
critical. One aspect that has received particular attention is the relationship
of gender roles to language achievement. Studies across numerous cultures have
shown that women, on the whole, enjoy an advantage over men. Some have proposed
that this is linked to gender roles. Doman notes in a journal devoted to issues
of Cultural effects on SLA, "Questions abound about what defines SLA, how
far its borders extend, and what the attributions and contributions of its
research are. Thus, there is a great amount of heterogeneity in the entire
conceptualization of SLA. Some researchers tend to ignore certain aspects of
the field, while others scrutinize those same aspects piece by piece."
Community attitudes toward the language being learned can also
have a profound impact on Second Language Acquisition. Where the community has
a broadly negative view of the target language and its speakers, or a negative
view of its relation to them, learning is typically much more difficult. This
finding has been confirmed by research in numerous contexts. A widely cited
example is the difficulty faced by Navajo children in learning English as a
second language.
Other common social factors include the attitude of parents toward
language study, and the nature of group dynamics in the language classroom.
Additionally, early attitudes may strengthen motivation and facility with
language in general, particularly with early exposure to the language. All
these sum up to affect learners' acquisition of the target language and
learners' language/ code choice when multiple varieties of a (second) language
are involved.
9. Motivation
The role of motivation in SLA has been the subject of extensive
scholarship, closely influenced by work in motivational psychology. Motivation
is internally complex, and Dörnyei begins his work by stating that
"strictly speaking, there is no such thing as motivation." There are
many different kinds of motivation; these are often divided into types such as
integrative or instrumental, intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation
refers to the desire to do something for an internal reward. Most studies have
shown it to be substantially more effective in long-term language learning than
extrinsic motivation, for an external reward such as high grades or praise.
Integrative and instrumental orientations refer to the degree that a language
is learned "for its own sake" (integratively) or for instrumental
purposes. Studies have not consistently shown either form of motivation to be
more effective than the other, and the role of each is probably conditioned by
various personality and cultural factors.
Some research has shown that motivation correlates strongly
with proficiency, indicating both that successful learners are motivated and
that success improves motivation. Thus motivation is not fixed, but is strongly
affected by feedback from the environment. Accordingly, the study of motivation
in SLA has also examined many of the external factors discussed above, such as
the effect of instructional techniques on motivation. An accessible summary of
this research can be found in Dörnyei (2001).
In their research on willingness to communicate, MacIntyre et al.
have shown that motivation is not the final construct before learners engage in
communication. In fact, learners may be highly motivated yet remain unwilling
to communicate.
CHAPTER III
CLOSING
A. Conclusion
Individual variation in second-language acquisition is
the study of why some people learn a second language better than others. Unlike
children who acquire a language, adults learning a second language rarely reach
the same level of competence as native speakers of that language.
Some Factors of Individual Variation in SLA are
language aptitude, age, strategy use, effective factors, affective filter,
anxiety, personality factor, social effects, motivation
B. Tips
As college student we shall more energetic studying and
add our knowledge. Never tired for learned.
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Doman, E. (2006). "Current
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